Difference between revisions of "Sumeria"

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{{Infobox archaeological culture
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{{Infobox former country
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|name        = Sagiga<br><small>𒊕 𒈪 𒂵</small>
+
| native_name                = Sumeria<br><small>𒊕 𒈪 𒂵</small>
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|map        = File:Sagigan cities.png
+
| conventional_long_name    = Sumeria
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|mapcaption  = Sagigan city-states along the [[Alaius]]
+
| common_name                = Sumeria
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|mapalt      =
+
| era                        = [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age]]
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|altnames    =
+
| government_type            = [[Monarchy]]
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|horizon      =
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| year_start                = {{circa|4500 BC}}
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|region      = [[Alaia]], [[Ancient Caelean Coast|Caelean Coast]]
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| year_end                  = {{circa|lk=no|2300 BC}}
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|period      = [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age]]
+
| life_span                  = <center>{{circa|lk=no|4500{{snd}}2300 BC}}</center>
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|dates      = {{circa|4500|2000 BC}}
+
|image_map2                  = File:Sagigan cities.png
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|precededby  =  
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| image_map2_size = 250px
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|followedby  = [[Akadia]]
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|image_map2_alt              =  
−
|typesite    =
+
|image_map2_caption          = Sumerian city-states along the [[Alaius]]
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|majorsites  =
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| image_map                  =  
−
|extra        =
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| image_map_size          = 250px
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|definedby    =
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| capital                    = [[Sumer (city)|Sumer]]
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|antiquatedby =
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| common_languages          = [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]<br>[[Akadian language|Akadian]]
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|module      =
+
| religion                  =
 +
| leader1                    =
 +
| leader2                    =
 +
| year_leader1              = {{circa|lk=no|2300–2245 BC}}
 +
| year_leader2              =
 +
| title_leader              =
 +
| demonym                    =
 +
| area_km2                  =  
 +
| area_rank                  =
 +
| GDP_PPP                    =  
 +
| GDP_PPP_year              =  
 +
| HDI                        =  
 +
| HDI_year                  =  
 +
| today                      = [[Terranihil]]
 +
|p1 = Furzat period
 +
|s1 = Akadia
 
}}
 
}}
 
{{Template:Ancient Caelean Coast topic}}
 
{{Template:Ancient Caelean Coast topic}}
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'''Sagiga''' is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of the [[Ancient Caelean Coast]] and [[Alaia]], emerging during the [[Neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]] in the fifth millennium BC. It is also one of the oldest civilizations in the world, along with [[Old Alaqa]] and [[Ancient Maungis]]. Living along the valley of the [[Alaius]] and its tributaries, Sagigan farmers grew an abundance of grain and other crops, which enabled them to form urban settlements. [[Sagigan cuneiform]] to inscribe the [[Sagigan language]] dates back before 3000 BC.  
+
'''Sumeria''' is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of the [[Ancient Caelean Coast]] and [[Alaia]], emerging during the [[Neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]] in the fifth millennium BC. It is also one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Living along the valley of the [[Alaius]] and its tributaries, Sumerian farmers grew an abundance of grain and other crops, which enabled them to form urban settlements. [[Sumerian cuneiform]] to inscribe the [[Sumerian language]] dates back before 3000 BC.  
  
 
== Name ==
 
== Name ==
−
Sagiga comes from Sagigan for 'the black-headed people' (𒊕 𒈪, saĝ-gíg, 'head' + 'black', or 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵, saĝ-gíg-ga, 'head' + 'black' + 'carry'). The Akadians called Sagigans ''ṣalmat-qaqqadi'', meaning 'black-headed people', in the Akadian language.
+
Sumeria comes from Sumerian for 'the black-headed people' (𒊕 𒈪, saĝ-gíg, 'head' + 'black', or 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵, saĝ-gíg-ga, 'head' + 'black' + 'carry'). The Akadians called Sumerians ''ṣalmat-qaqqadi'', meaning 'black-headed people', in the Akadian language.
  
−
Sagigans more often referred to themselves as ''Kenger'', meaning 'Country of the noble lords' (𒆠𒂗𒄀, 'country' + 'lords' + 'noble').
+
Sumerians more often referred to themselves as ''Kenger'', meaning 'Country of the noble lords' (𒆠𒂗𒄀, 'country' + 'lords' + 'noble').
  
 
== City-states ==
 
== City-states ==
−
In the late 4th millennium BC, Sagiga was divided into many independent city-states. Each was centered around a temple dedicated to a particular patron god or goddess and ruled by a priestly governor (ensi) or king (lugal).
+
In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumeria was divided into many independent city-states. Each was centered around a temple dedicated to a particular patron god or goddess and ruled by a priestly governor (ensi) or king (lugal).
  
 
Pre-dynastic city-states:
 
Pre-dynastic city-states:
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# [[Badtibra]]
 
# [[Badtibra]]
 
# [[Larsam]]
 
# [[Larsam]]
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# [[Simbir]]
 
−
# [[Shurapak]]
 
 
Dynastic city-states:
 
Dynastic city-states:
 
{{ordered list|start=6
 
{{ordered list|start=6
 
| [[Uruk]]  
 
| [[Uruk]]  
−
| [[Kish]]
 
 
| [[Ur]]  
 
| [[Ur]]  
−
| [[Nibur]]
 
−
| [[Lagash]]
 
−
| [[Mari]]
 
 
| [[Akad]]  
 
| [[Akad]]  
 
}}
 
}}
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== History ==
 
== History ==
 
=== Origins ===
 
=== Origins ===
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Sagiga was first settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a people who spoke the Sagigan language.  
+
Sumeria was first settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a people who spoke the Sumerian language. Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Furzat period<!--from Vaktrian ??-->. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic period in c. 23rd century BCE.  
−
 
 
−
Sagigan city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Furzat period<!--from Vektranamic fražaıt-->. Sagigan written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic period in c. 23rd century BC.  
 
  
 
=== Furzat period ===
 
=== Furzat period ===
 
[[Image:Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pottery jar from Furzat period]]
 
[[Image:Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pottery jar from Furzat period]]
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The Furzat period (c. 5500-4100 BC) is marked by fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Alaia and the Caelean Coast. The first settlement near the Alaius was established at [[Iridu]] in c. 6500 BC by farmers who first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It is unknown whether or not these were the actual Sagigans who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Many historians estimate the Sagigans succeeded the original settlers c. 5500 BC or later.
+
The Furzat period (c. 5500-4100 BC) is marked by fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Alaia and the Caelean Coast. The first settlement near the Alaius was established at [[Iridu]] in c. 6500 BC by farmers who began irrigation agriculture.
  
 
=== Uruk period ===
 
=== Uruk period ===
−
The transition from the Furzat period to the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC) is marked by a shift from painted pottery produced on a slow wheel to unpainted pottery mass-produced on fast wheels.
+
The transition from the Furzat period to the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC) is marked by a shift from pottery produced on slow wheels to mass-produced pottery on fast wheels.
  
−
The volume of goods transported along the canals and rivers of the Alaius brought the rise of many large, temple-centered cities with populations over 10,000. Sagigan cities began to use slave labor captured from neighboring rural areas.  
+
The volume of goods transported along the canals and rivers of the Alaius brought the rise of many large, temple-centered cities with populations over 10,000. Sumerian cities began to use slave labor captured from neighboring rural areas.  
−
[[File:Uruk King priest feeding the sacred herd.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Impression from the Uruk period, c. 3100 BC]]
+
[[File:Uruk King priest feeding the sacred herd.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Impression from the Uruk period, c. 3100 BC]]
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Uruk culture spread via Sagigan traders and colonists to surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own economies and cultures. Sagiga could not maintain remote, long-distance colonies by military force.
+
Uruk culture spread via Sumerian traders and colonists to surrounding peoples. Sumeria could not maintain remote, long-distance colonies by military force.
  
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Sagigan cities were theocratic and headed by a priest-king (''ensi''), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. The later Sagigan pantheon was likely modeled upon this political structure. There is little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Sagiga became the most urbanized place in the world, surpassing 50,000 inhabitants.
+
Sumerian cities were theocratic and headed by a priest-king (''ensi''), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. During this period Sumeria became highly urbanized, surpassing 50,000 inhabitants. The earliest reported kings of this period may be fictional. They include some legendary and mythological figures.
−
 
 
−
The ancient Sagigan king list includes the early dynasties of several cities from this period. The first set of names on the list is of kings said to have reigned before a major flood occurred. These early names may be fictional, and include some legendary and mythological figures, such as [[Alulim]] and [[Dumizid]].
 
  
 
=== Early Dynastic period ===
 
=== Early Dynastic period ===
 
[[File:Meskalamdug helmet British Museum electrotype copy original is in the Iraq Museum, Bagdad.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Golden helmet of [[Meskalamdug]], possible founder of the [[First Dynasty of Ur]], 26th century BC]]
 
[[File:Meskalamdug helmet British Museum electrotype copy original is in the Iraq Museum, Bagdad.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Golden helmet of [[Meskalamdug]], possible founder of the [[First Dynasty of Ur]], 26th century BC]]
−
The dynastic period (c. 2900-2350 BC) is marked by a shift from the temple establishment headed by an ensi and council of elders to leadership by a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great). It includes legendary patriarchal figures such as Dumuzid, Lugalbanda and [[Bilgamesh]]. The center of Sagigan culture remained at the Alaius, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas and neighboring Semitic groups adopted Sagigan culture.
+
The dynastic period (c. 2900-2350 BC) is marked by a shift from the temple establishment to leadership by a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great). The center of Sumerian culture remained at the Alaius, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas and neighboring Semitic groups adopted Sumerian culture.
  
−
The earliest Sagigan king authenticated through archaeological evidence is [[Mebarasi]] of Kish, whose name is also mentioned in the [[Epic of Bilgamesh|Bilgamesh epic]], leading to the suggestion that Bilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled and increased in size as undefended villages disappeared. Bilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk.
+
The earliest Sumerian king authenticated by archaeological evidence is [[Mebarasi]] of Kish, whose name is also mentioned in the [[Epic of Bilgamesh|Bilgamesh epic]], leading to the suggestion that Bilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled and increased in size as undefended villages disappeared. Bilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk.
  
 
=== Akadian Empire ===
 
=== Akadian Empire ===
 
:''Main article: [[Akadia]]''
 
:''Main article: [[Akadia]]''
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The rise of the Akadian Empire in the 24th century BC made the Semitic [[Akadian language]] more common in the civilizations near the Alaius, though Sagigan remained the primary written language until 1800 BC. Sagigan was increasingly becoming a literary language only known by scholars and scribes.
+
The rise of the Akadian Empire in the 24th century BC made the Semitic [[Akadian language]] more common in the civilizations near the Alaius, though Sumerian remained the primary written language until 1800 BC. Sumerian was increasingly becoming a literary language only known by scholars and scribes.
  
−
=== Neo-Sagigan period ===
+
=== Neo-Sumerian period ===
−
The [[3rd dynasty of Ur]] (c. 2112-2004 BC), whose power extended as far as Aramea, was the last great Sagigan renaissance. However, the region was becoming more Semitic than Sagigan, with the increase of the Akadian-speaking people and the influx Amorites.
+
The 3rd dynasty of Ur (c. 2112-2004 BC), whose power extended as far as Assoria, was the last great Sumerian renaissance. However, the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the increase of the Akadian-speaking people and the influx of Murtans.
  
 
=== Fall ===
 
=== Fall ===
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Sagigan land was compromised by poor land irrigation which led to the build up of salts in the soil. This severely reduced agricultural yield and greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sagigan was spoken and strengthening those where Akadian was spoken. Henceforth, Sagigan would remain only a literary and liturgical language.
+
Sumerian land was compromised by poor land irrigation which led to increased soil salinity. This reduced agricultural yield and upset the balance of power within the region, weakening Sumerian-speaking regions and strengthening Akadian-speaking ones. Henceforth, Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language. Following an Elamite invasion and sack of Ur (c. 2028–2004 BC), Sumeria came under Murtan rule until they were later conquered by Akadia in 2300 BC.
−
 
 
−
Following an Elamite invasion and sack of Ur (c. 2028–2004 BC), Sagiga came under Amorite rule until they were later conquered by Aramea in X BC.
 
  
 
== Culture ==
 
== Culture ==
 
===Social and family life===
 
===Social and family life===
−
[[File:Reconstructed sumerian headgear necklaces british museum.JPG|thumb|right|150px|A reconstruction of headgear and necklaces worn by the women at the [[Royal Cemetery at Ur]].]]
+
In the early Sumerian period, primitive pictograms suggest:
−
In the early Sagigan period, primitive pictograms suggest:
 
 
* Pottery with a variety of forms of vases, bowls, dishes, etc; jars for honey, butter, oil and wine (probably made from dates).
 
* Pottery with a variety of forms of vases, bowls, dishes, etc; jars for honey, butter, oil and wine (probably made from dates).
 
* Feathered head-dresses were worn.  
 
* Feathered head-dresses were worn.  
−
* There were fire-places and fire-altars.
+
* Knives, drills, wedges, and saws; spears, bows, arrows, and daggers (but not swords).
−
* Knives, drills, wedges, and saws were crafted; spears, bows, arrows, and daggers (but not swords) were used in war.
+
* Necklaces or collars made of gold.
−
* Necklaces or collars made of gold were worn.
+
* Clay tablets for writing.  
−
* Clay tablets were used for writing.  
 
 
* Time was tracked in lunar months.
 
* Time was tracked in lunar months.
  
−
There is considerable evidence of [[Sagigan music]]. Lyres and flutes were played, with the Lyres of Ur being the best example.
+
There is considerable evidence of Sumerian music. Lyres and flutes were played, with the Lyres of Ur being the best example.
−
 
 
−
Inscriptions describing the reforms of king Urukagina of Lagash (c. 2350 BC) say that he abolished polyandry, ordering that a woman who took multiple husbands be stoned with rocks upon which her crime had been written.
 
  
 
{{multiple image
 
{{multiple image
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| align    = left
+
| align    = right
 
| direction =horizontal
 
| direction =horizontal
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| header=Sagigan princess (c.2150 BC)
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| header=Sumerian princess (c.2150 BC)
 
| total_width=350
 
| total_width=350
 
| image1  = Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea circa 2150 BCE.jpg
 
| image1  = Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea circa 2150 BCE.jpg
−
| caption1 = {{center|Sagigan princess c. 2150 BC.}}
+
| caption1 = {{center|Sumerian princess c. 2150 BC.}}
 
| image2  = Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea 2150 BCE. Louvre Museum AO 295.jpg
 
| image2  = Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea 2150 BCE. Louvre Museum AO 295.jpg
 
| caption2 = {{center|Frontal detail.}}
 
| caption2 = {{center|Frontal detail.}}
 
| footer=
 
| footer=
 
}}
 
}}
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Sagigan culture was male-dominated and stratified. The [[Code of Ur-Nammu]], the oldest codification of Sagigan laws discovered, reveals the societal structure in Sagigan law. Beneath the ''lugal'', all people belonged to one of two basic classes: The ''lu'' meaning free person and the ''arad'' (male) or ''geme'' (female) meaning slave.
+
Sumerian culture was male-dominated and stratified. The Code of Ur-Nammu, the oldest codification of Sumerian laws discovered, reveals the societal structure in Sumerian law. Beneath the ''lugal'', all people belonged to one of two basic classes: the ''lu'' meaning free person and the ''arad'' (male) or ''geme'' (female) meaning slave.
  
−
Marriages were usually arranged by parents; engagements were done through contracts written on tablets. These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a gift to his bride's father. Sagigan proverbs describe the ideal, happy marriage as one in which the husband boasts that his wife has borne him eight sons and is still eager to have sex.
+
Sumerians generally discouraged premarital sex. They, as well as the later Akadians, had no concept of virginity. Sumerians believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency for both men and women. They did not consider anal sex taboo either. ''Entu'' priestesses were forbidden from having children. Prostitution and sacred prostitution also likely existed.
−
 
 
−
Sagigans generally discouraged premarital sex. They, as well as the later Akadians, had no concept of virginity. Sagigans had no knowledge of the existence of the hymen. Sagigans believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency for both men and women. They did not consider anal sex taboo either. ''Entu'' priestesses were forbidden from having children. Prostitution and sacred prostitution also likely existed.
 
  
 
=== Language and writing ===
 
=== Language and writing ===
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The most important archaeological discoveries in Sagiga are clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Sagigan writing is considered a milestone in the development of humanity's ability to create historical records and literature, in the form of epic poems, stories, prayers, and laws.
+
The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumeria are clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Sumerian writing is considered a milestone in the development of humanity's ability to create historical records and literature, in the form of epic poems, stories, prayers, and laws. Reeds were used to write on moist clay. Hundreds of thousands of texts in Sumerian have survived, including letters, receipts, lexicons, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and other records.
−
[[File:Stele of Vultures detail 02.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Fragment of a Sagigan monument celebrating a victory in war c. 2450 BC]]
 
−
Triangular reeds were used to write on moist clay. Hundreds of thousands of texts in Sagigan have survived, including letters, receipts, lexicons, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and other records. Full libraries of tablets have been found. Inscriptions on other objects, like statues or bricks, were also common.
 
  
−
The Epic of Bilgamesh was a long cuneiform poem written in Sagigan and is one of the most studied pieces of Sagigan and ancient literature. It tells the story of a king from the early Dynastic period named Bilgamesh. It was written on several clay tablets and is thought to be the earliest known surviving piece of fictional literature.
+
The Epic of Bilgamesh was a long cuneiform poem written in Sumerian and is one of the most studied pieces of Sumerian and ancient literature. It tells the story of a king from the early Dynastic period named Bilgamesh. It was written on several clay tablets and is thought to be the earliest known surviving piece of fictional literature.
  
−
The Sagigan language is an agglutinative language isolate. Understanding Sagigan texts today can be difficult because of a lack of information on Sagigan grammar.
+
The Sumerian language is an agglutinative language isolate. During the 3rd millennium BC, a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The mutual influences between Sumerian and Akadian are apparent in all areas including word borrowing on a massive scale, and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. Akadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC, but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, and literary language in Akadia and then Assoria until around 500 BC.
−
 
 
−
During the 3rd millennium BC, a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sagigans and the Akadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The mutual influences between Sagigan and Akadian are apparent in all areas including word borrowing on a massive scale, and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.  
 
−
 
 
−
Akadian gradually replaced Sagigan as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC, but Sagigan continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, and literary language in Akadia and then Aramea until around 500 BC.
 
  
 
=== Religion ===
 
=== Religion ===
−
Sagigan religion was founded on cosmogenic myths. First, [[Namma]], the primeval waters, gave birth to [[An (god)|An (the sky)]] and [[Ki|Ki (the earth)]], who mated together and produced a son named [[Enlil]]. Enlil claimed the earth as his domain. Humans were believed to have been created by [[Enki]], the son of Nammu and An. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. This involves reconciliation between opposites, regarded as a joining of male and female divine beings. It mirrors the way muddy islands emerge from the joining of fresh and salt water at the mouth of the Alaius, where the river deposits its load of silt.
+
Sumerian religion was founded on cosmogenic myths. First, Namma, the primeval waters, gave birth to An (the sky) and Ki (the earth), who together produced a son named Enlil. Enlil claimed the earth as his domain. Humans were believed to have been created by Enki, the son of Namma and An. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. This involves reconciliation between opposites, regarded as a joining of male and female divine beings. It mirrors the way muddy islands emerge from the joining of fresh and salt water at the mouth of the Alaius, where the river deposits its load of silt. This pattern continued to influence regional Alaian myths. Thus, in the later Akadian creation myth, creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water, between male Abzu and female Tiamat.
−
[[File:Wall plaque showing libation scene from Ur, Iraq, 2500 BCE. British Museum (adjusted for perspective).jpg|right|thumb|200px|Plaque showing worship to a god and a temple. Ur, 2500 BC]]
 
−
This pattern continued to influence regional Alaian myths. Thus, in the later Akadian creation myth, creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water, between male Abzu and female Tiamat.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Dieties ====
 
−
Sagigans believed in anthropomorphic polytheism. There was no single pantheon; each city-state had its own patrons, temples, and priest-kings. Nonetheless, these were not exclusive; the gods of one city were often acknowledged elsewhere. Sagigan speakers were among the earliest people to record their beliefs in writing.
 
−
[[File:Ea (Babilonian) - EnKi (Sumerian).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Akadian cylinder seal from c. 2300 BC depicting Inanna, Utu, Enki, and Isimud.]]
 
−
Sagigans worshiped:
 
−
 
 
−
* An as the god equivalent to heaven; the word an in Sagigan means ''sky'' and his consort Ki means ''earth''.
 
−
* Enki in the east at the temple in Iridu. Enki was the god of beneficence and of wisdom, ruler of freshwater beneath the earth, and a healer and friend to humanity who was thought to have given humans the arts and sciences. The first law book was considered his creation.
 
−
* Enlil was the god of storms, wind, and rain. He was the patron god of Nibur.
 
−
* [[Inanna]] was the goddess of love, beauty, sexuality, prostitution, and war; Venus was deified as Inanna at the temple at Uruk.
 
−
* [[Utu]] the son god at Larsam in the east and Zimbir in the west,
 
−
* [[Sin]] the moon god at Ur.
 
−
 
 
−
These deities formed a core pantheon; there were additionally hundreds of minor ones.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Cosmology ====
 
−
Sagigans believed that the universe consisted of a flat disk enclosed by a dome. The afterlife was a descent into a dark, dusty netherworld to spend eternity as a ghost.
 
−
[[File:British Museum Queen of the Night.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The "Queen of Night Relief" (c. 1800 BC) is believed to represent either Ereshkigal.]]
 
−
The universe was divided into four quarters:
 
−
* To the north were the hill-dwelling X, who were periodically raided for slaves and raw materials.
 
−
* To the south were the tent-dwelling Amorites, ancient Semitic-speaking peoples living as pastoral nomads tending herds of sheep and goats.
 
−
* To the west were the Elamites, a rival people with whom the Sagigans were frequently at war.
 
−
* To the east was the Caelean sea.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Temples ====
 
−
[[File:White Temple 'E at Uruk, 3500-3000 BCE.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Ziggurat at Uruk. The original pyramidal structure, the "Anu Ziggurat", dates to c. 4000 BC, and the White Temple was built on top of it c. 3500 BC.]]
 
−
Ziggurats (Sagigan temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification. The temple had a large hall with aisles along either side. A podium and table for sacrifices would be at one end. Sagigans began to build temples on multi-layered squares to form a series of rising terraces, giving rise to the Ziggurat style.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Funerary practices ====
 
−
It was believed when people died, they would be sent to the gloomy world of [[Ereshkigal]], which was guarded by gates with various monsters to prevent people from entering or leaving. The dead were buried in graveyards outside the city walls. Earth mounds covered the corpses, along with offerings to the monsters. Evidence of human sacrifice was found in the death pits at the Ur royal cemetery in which royalty was accompanied in death by servants.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Agriculture and hunting ===
 
−
The Sagigans adopted an agricultural lifestyle as early as c. 5000–4500 BC. The region used a number of agricultural techniques, including organized irrigation, intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping ploughs, and bureaucratically managed specialized labour forces. Pictograms suggest the Sagigans had domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. They used oxen as beasts of burden and donkeys as primary transport animals.
 
−
[[File:Ur mosaic.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mosaic from the royal tombs of Ur depicts farming and other activities.]]
 
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The Sagigans grew barley, chickpeas, lentils, wheat, dates, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and mustard. They caught fish and hunted fowl and gazelle. The Sagigans were one of the first known societies to drink beer. Cereals were plentiful, and they brewed multiple kinds of beet consisting of wheat and barley.
 
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Sagigan agriculture depended heavily on irrigation. The irrigation was accomplished using canals, channels, reservoirs, and other techniques. The frequent violent floods of the Alaius meant that canals required frequent repair and continuous removal of silt. By the Ur period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley as their principal crop due to increased soil salinity.
 
  
 
=== Art ===
 
=== Art ===
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Sagigan artifacts show great detail and ornamentation, incorporating stones such as lapis lazuli, marble, and diorite and metals like gold. Stone was often reserved for sculptures. The most widespread material in Sagiga was clay, which explains the abundance of clay Sagigan objects. Some of the most famous masterpieces are the Lyres of Ur, which are considered to be the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments.
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Sumerian artifacts show great detail and ornamentation, incorporating stones such as lapis lazuli and marble, and metals like gold. The most widespread material in Sumeria was clay, which explains the abundance of clay Sumerian objects. Some of the most famous masterpieces are the Lyres of Ur, which are considered to be the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments.
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<gallery class="center" widths="250px" heights="200">
 
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File:The Queen's gold lyre from the Royal Cemetery at Ur. C. 2500 BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg|The Queen's gold lyre from the Royal Cemetery of Ur.
 
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File:Royal Tombs of Ur Objects from tomb PG 580.jpg|Gold dagger from Royal Cemetery of Ur.
 
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File:Bull's head ornament for a lyre MET DP260070.jpg|Bull's head ornament from a lyre; 2600–2350 BC.
 
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</gallery>
 
  
 
=== Architecture ===
 
=== Architecture ===
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[[File:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Great Ziggurat of Ur, built during the Third Dynasty of Ur c. 2100 BC)]]
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[[File:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Great Ziggurat of Ur, built during the Third Dynasty of Ur c. 2100 BC)]]
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Sagigan structures were made of mudbrick. Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities. Houses had a tower-like appearance. City gates were large and double doored. The most impressive and famous of Sagigan buildings are the ziggurats. The Sagigans also developed the arch, which allowed build domes by constructing and linking several arches.
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Sumerian structures were made of mudbrick. Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities. Houses had a tower-like appearance. They built multi-layered squares to form a series of rising terraces, giving rise to the Ziggurat style. The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats.
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=== Economy ===
 
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Discoveries of obsidian from far-away locations in Malgax and lapis lazuli near the Vantharus and Theumus rivers, beads from Alaqa, and several seals inscribed with Alaqan hieroglyphs suggest a wide-ranging network of ancient trade centered on the Caelean Coast. The Epic of Bilgamesh refers to trade with far away lands for goods, such as wood, that were scarce in Sagiga.
 
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The Sagigans used slaves captured from neighborring peoples, although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave women worked as weavers and millers.
 
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Sagigan potters decorated pots with cedar oil paints. Sagigan masons and jewelers used alabaster, ivory, iron, gold, silver, carnelian, and lapis lazuli.
 
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=== Military ===
 
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[[File:Stele of the vultures (phalanx).jpg|thumb|right|200px|Phalanx battle formations on a fragment of the Stele of the Vultures.]]
 
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Sagigan military technology and techniques was quite developed because Sagigan city-states were in almost constant wars for 2000 years. The first recorded war was between Lagash and Umma c. 2450 BC depicted on the Stele of the Vultures. It shows the king of Lagash leading an army of mostly of infantry who carried spears and rectangular shields and wore copper helmets. The spearmen are arranged in the phalanx formation, which requires training and discipline, which implies that the Sagigans may have made use of professional soldiers.
 
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Sagigan militaries used four or two-wheeled carts tied to four onagers and manned by a crew of two. These chariots functioned less effectively in combat than later designs.
 
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Sagigan cities were surrounded by defensive walls. The Sagigans engaged in siege warfare between their cities.
 
  
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=== Technology ===
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{{Template:Terranihil topics}}
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Sagigan technology included: the wheel, cuneiform script, arithmetic and geometry, irrigation systems, boats, lunisolar calendar, bronze, leather, saws, chisels, hammers, braces, nails, pins, rings, hoes, axes, knives, lancepoints, arrowheads, swords, glue, daggers, waterskins, bags, harnesses, armor, quivers, war chariots, scabbards, boots, sandals, harpoons and beer.
 
  
 
[[Category:Terraconserva]]
 
[[Category:Terraconserva]]

Latest revision as of 02:43, 27 June 2022

Sumeria

Sumeria
𒊕 𒈪 𒂵
c. 4500 – 2300 BC
Sumerian city-states along the Alaius
Sumerian city-states along the Alaius
CapitalSumer
Common languagesSumerian
Akadian
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraNeolithic, Bronze Age
• Established
c. 4500 BC
• Disestablished
c. 2300 BC
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Furzat period
Akadia
Today part ofTerranihil
The Ancient Caelean Coast
Relief on the Ishtar Gate, Pergamenmuseum 4.jpg
Regions and states

Alaia

Alaqa

Malgax

Judea

Archaeological periods
Languages
Literature
Mythology

Sumeria is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of the Ancient Caelean Coast and Alaia, emerging during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in the fifth millennium BC. It is also one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Living along the valley of the Alaius and its tributaries, Sumerian farmers grew an abundance of grain and other crops, which enabled them to form urban settlements. Sumerian cuneiform to inscribe the Sumerian language dates back before 3000 BC.

Name

Sumeria comes from Sumerian for 'the black-headed people' (𒊕 𒈪, saĝ-gíg, 'head' + 'black', or 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵, saĝ-gíg-ga, 'head' + 'black' + 'carry'). The Akadians called Sumerians ṣalmat-qaqqadi, meaning 'black-headed people', in the Akadian language.

Sumerians more often referred to themselves as Kenger, meaning 'Country of the noble lords' (𒆠𒂗𒄀, 'country' + 'lords' + 'noble').

City-states

In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumeria was divided into many independent city-states. Each was centered around a temple dedicated to a particular patron god or goddess and ruled by a priestly governor (ensi) or king (lugal).

Pre-dynastic city-states:

  1. Iridu
  2. Badtibra
  3. Larsam

Dynastic city-states:

  1. Uruk
  2. Ur
  3. Akad

History

Origins

Sumeria was first settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a people who spoke the Sumerian language. Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Furzat period. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic period in c. 23rd century BCE.

Furzat period

Pottery jar from Furzat period

The Furzat period (c. 5500-4100 BC) is marked by fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Alaia and the Caelean Coast. The first settlement near the Alaius was established at Iridu in c. 6500 BC by farmers who began irrigation agriculture.

Uruk period

The transition from the Furzat period to the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC) is marked by a shift from pottery produced on slow wheels to mass-produced pottery on fast wheels.

The volume of goods transported along the canals and rivers of the Alaius brought the rise of many large, temple-centered cities with populations over 10,000. Sumerian cities began to use slave labor captured from neighboring rural areas.

Impression from the Uruk period, c. 3100 BC

Uruk culture spread via Sumerian traders and colonists to surrounding peoples. Sumeria could not maintain remote, long-distance colonies by military force.

Sumerian cities were theocratic and headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. During this period Sumeria became highly urbanized, surpassing 50,000 inhabitants. The earliest reported kings of this period may be fictional. They include some legendary and mythological figures.

Early Dynastic period

Golden helmet of Meskalamdug, possible founder of the First Dynasty of Ur, 26th century BC

The dynastic period (c. 2900-2350 BC) is marked by a shift from the temple establishment to leadership by a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great). The center of Sumerian culture remained at the Alaius, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas and neighboring Semitic groups adopted Sumerian culture.

The earliest Sumerian king authenticated by archaeological evidence is Mebarasi of Kish, whose name is also mentioned in the Bilgamesh epic, leading to the suggestion that Bilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled and increased in size as undefended villages disappeared. Bilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk.

Akadian Empire

Main article: Akadia

The rise of the Akadian Empire in the 24th century BC made the Semitic Akadian language more common in the civilizations near the Alaius, though Sumerian remained the primary written language until 1800 BC. Sumerian was increasingly becoming a literary language only known by scholars and scribes.

Neo-Sumerian period

The 3rd dynasty of Ur (c. 2112-2004 BC), whose power extended as far as Assoria, was the last great Sumerian renaissance. However, the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the increase of the Akadian-speaking people and the influx of Murtans.

Fall

Sumerian land was compromised by poor land irrigation which led to increased soil salinity. This reduced agricultural yield and upset the balance of power within the region, weakening Sumerian-speaking regions and strengthening Akadian-speaking ones. Henceforth, Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language. Following an Elamite invasion and sack of Ur (c. 2028–2004 BC), Sumeria came under Murtan rule until they were later conquered by Akadia in 2300 BC.

Culture

Social and family life

In the early Sumerian period, primitive pictograms suggest:

  • Pottery with a variety of forms of vases, bowls, dishes, etc; jars for honey, butter, oil and wine (probably made from dates).
  • Feathered head-dresses were worn.
  • Knives, drills, wedges, and saws; spears, bows, arrows, and daggers (but not swords).
  • Necklaces or collars made of gold.
  • Clay tablets for writing.
  • Time was tracked in lunar months.

There is considerable evidence of Sumerian music. Lyres and flutes were played, with the Lyres of Ur being the best example.

Sumerian princess (c.2150 BC)
Sumerian princess c. 2150 BC.
Frontal detail.

Sumerian culture was male-dominated and stratified. The Code of Ur-Nammu, the oldest codification of Sumerian laws discovered, reveals the societal structure in Sumerian law. Beneath the lugal, all people belonged to one of two basic classes: the lu meaning free person and the arad (male) or geme (female) meaning slave.

Sumerians generally discouraged premarital sex. They, as well as the later Akadians, had no concept of virginity. Sumerians believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency for both men and women. They did not consider anal sex taboo either. Entu priestesses were forbidden from having children. Prostitution and sacred prostitution also likely existed.

Language and writing

The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumeria are clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Sumerian writing is considered a milestone in the development of humanity's ability to create historical records and literature, in the form of epic poems, stories, prayers, and laws. Reeds were used to write on moist clay. Hundreds of thousands of texts in Sumerian have survived, including letters, receipts, lexicons, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and other records.

The Epic of Bilgamesh was a long cuneiform poem written in Sumerian and is one of the most studied pieces of Sumerian and ancient literature. It tells the story of a king from the early Dynastic period named Bilgamesh. It was written on several clay tablets and is thought to be the earliest known surviving piece of fictional literature.

The Sumerian language is an agglutinative language isolate. During the 3rd millennium BC, a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The mutual influences between Sumerian and Akadian are apparent in all areas including word borrowing on a massive scale, and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. Akadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC, but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, and literary language in Akadia and then Assoria until around 500 BC.

Religion

Sumerian religion was founded on cosmogenic myths. First, Namma, the primeval waters, gave birth to An (the sky) and Ki (the earth), who together produced a son named Enlil. Enlil claimed the earth as his domain. Humans were believed to have been created by Enki, the son of Namma and An. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. This involves reconciliation between opposites, regarded as a joining of male and female divine beings. It mirrors the way muddy islands emerge from the joining of fresh and salt water at the mouth of the Alaius, where the river deposits its load of silt. This pattern continued to influence regional Alaian myths. Thus, in the later Akadian creation myth, creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water, between male Abzu and female Tiamat.

Art

Sumerian artifacts show great detail and ornamentation, incorporating stones such as lapis lazuli and marble, and metals like gold. The most widespread material in Sumeria was clay, which explains the abundance of clay Sumerian objects. Some of the most famous masterpieces are the Lyres of Ur, which are considered to be the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments.

Architecture

The Great Ziggurat of Ur, built during the Third Dynasty of Ur c. 2100 BC)

Sumerian structures were made of mudbrick. Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities. Houses had a tower-like appearance. They built multi-layered squares to form a series of rising terraces, giving rise to the Ziggurat style. The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats.

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