Difference between revisions of "Vaktrian language"
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| extinct = | | extinct = | ||
| era = 8th century BCE - present | | era = 8th century BCE - present | ||
− | | speakers = | + | | speakers = [[Vaktrians]] |
| date = | | date = | ||
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'''Vaktrian''' (Vaktrian:Ⲯⲁⲕⲧⲣⲓⲁⲋⲧ, ''Vaktrıast'')<!--mouth + name--> is a language that emerged in the 8th century BCE as [[Classical Vaktrian]]. It is the language of the [[Vaktrian people]] and official language of [[Terranihil]]. It has six living dialects. Its standardized form, a modernization of Classical Vaktrian, is the lingua franca of Terranihil. | '''Vaktrian''' (Vaktrian:Ⲯⲁⲕⲧⲣⲓⲁⲋⲧ, ''Vaktrıast'')<!--mouth + name--> is a language that emerged in the 8th century BCE as [[Classical Vaktrian]]. It is the language of the [[Vaktrian people]] and official language of [[Terranihil]]. It has six living dialects. Its standardized form, a modernization of Classical Vaktrian, is the lingua franca of Terranihil. | ||
− | <!--a classical language of [[Terranihil]] belonging to the [[Terranilian-Azumanakan languages|Terranilian-Azumanakan branch]] of the [[Ecro-Avansertian language family]]. It arose in south eastern Terranihil in the mid 2nd millenium BC from its predecessor, [[Proto- | + | <!--a classical language of [[Terranihil]] belonging to the [[Terranilian-Azumanakan languages|Terranilian-Azumanakan branch]] of the [[Ecro-Avansertian language family]]. It arose in south eastern Terranihil in the mid 2nd millenium BC from its predecessor, [[Proto-Gesporian]], as the first recorded Gesporian language. It used the [[Vaktrian alphabet]], derived from Greek. It was the language of the ancient [[Vaktrian Empire]] that existed from 1500-600 BC. It is the sacred language of X religion, the language of classical X philosophy, and of the X church.--> |
== Etymology == | == Etymology == | ||
The native name for Vaktrian is ''Vaktrıast'' (Ⲯⲁⲕⲧⲣⲓⲁⲋ in Classical Vaktrian). ''Vaktrıa'' from [[Proto-Vaktrian language|Proto-Vaktrian]] means "road" or "way". The ''-ast'' suffix in Vaktrian changes a noun into an adjective, thus ''Vaktrıast'' is best translated as "[language] of the road". | The native name for Vaktrian is ''Vaktrıast'' (Ⲯⲁⲕⲧⲣⲓⲁⲋ in Classical Vaktrian). ''Vaktrıa'' from [[Proto-Vaktrian language|Proto-Vaktrian]] means "road" or "way". The ''-ast'' suffix in Vaktrian changes a noun into an adjective, thus ''Vaktrıast'' is best translated as "[language] of the road". | ||
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=== Northern and Southern Vaktrian (200 - 1200) === | === Northern and Southern Vaktrian (200 - 1200) === | ||
− | Around the 3rd century CE, the Vaktrian language began to diverge into two branches: nothern Vaktrian and southern Vaktrian. This aligned with cultural, religious, and political differences. The southern region of Vaktria had become heavily influenced by [[Romanyan language|Romanyan]], more so than the north. It remained under Romanyan rule until the 6th century and was Christianized. When it split from Romanya, the south formed itself into the [[Ragasan Kingdom]]. Meanwhile, northern Vaktria seceded from Romanya earlier in 325. Northern Vaktrians were less infuenced by Romanyan culture and language and were anti-Christian. The [[Septarban Kingdom]] actively resisted Romanyanization and Christianization by banning Christianity, expelling Christian Vaktrians, and prohibiting use of the [[Iberic | + | Around the 3rd century CE, the Vaktrian language began to diverge into two branches: nothern Vaktrian and southern Vaktrian. This aligned with cultural, religious, and political differences. The southern region of Vaktria had become heavily influenced by [[Romanyan language|Romanyan]], more so than the north. It remained under Romanyan rule until the 6th century and was Christianized. When it split from Romanya, the south formed itself into the [[Ragasan Kingdom]]. Meanwhile, northern Vaktria seceded from Romanya earlier in 325. Northern Vaktrians were less infuenced by Romanyan culture and language and were anti-Christian. The [[Septarban Kingdom]] actively resisted Romanyanization and Christianization by banning Christianity, expelling Christian Vaktrians, and prohibiting use of the [[Iberic script]]. These differences led to the development of the two branches of Vaktrian. |
=== Development of dialects === | === Development of dialects === | ||
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! rowspan="2" | Fricative || <small>voiceless</small> | ! rowspan="2" | Fricative || <small>voiceless</small> | ||
| /f/ ''f'' | | /f/ ''f'' | ||
− | | /θ/ '' | + | | /θ/ ''ŧ'' |
| /s/ ''s'' | | /s/ ''s'' | ||
| /ʃ/ ''š'' | | /ʃ/ ''š'' | ||
− | | | + | | |
| /x/ ''c'' | | /x/ ''c'' | ||
| /h/ ''h'' | | /h/ ''h'' | ||
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! <small>voiced</small> | ! <small>voiced</small> | ||
| /v/ ''v'' | | /v/ ''v'' | ||
− | | /ð/ '' | + | | /ð/ ''đ'' |
− | | | + | | /z/ ''z'' |
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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| /u/ ''u'' | | /u/ ''u'' | ||
| /iː/ ''ǐ'' | | /iː/ ''ǐ'' | ||
− | | /uː/ '' | + | | /uː/ ''ǔ'' |
|- | |- | ||
! Mid | ! Mid | ||
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Diphthong: ''au'', ''eu'' | Diphthong: ''au'', ''eu'' | ||
− | == | + | == Grammar == |
− | [[File:Vaktrian Syntax Tree.PNG|right|thumb|325px|Syntax tree with translation for the sentence: ''haı rasev cefaı damunaı havtaı inkaımaz'' meaning ''a man sees the dog in the house'']]Vaktrian is an agglutanative language which utilizes both prefixes and suffixes to denote verb person, tense, mood, and aspect and noun case | + | <!--[[File:Vaktrian Syntax Tree.PNG|right|thumb|325px|Syntax tree with translation for the sentence: ''haı rasev cefaı damunaı havtaı inkaımaz'' meaning ''a man sees the dog in the house'']]-->Vaktrian is an agglutanative language which utilizes both prefixes and suffixes to denote verb person, tense, mood, and aspect and noun case. |
− | + | The word order is subject-verb-object, though sentences do not strictly follow this order since cases are denoted seperate from order. | |
− | |||
− | + | Vaktrian uses postprepositions. | |
− | + | Generally the second syllable of a word is stressed, unless otherwise indicated by a long vowel. | |
− | |||
− | + | == Verbs == | |
− | + | Vaktrian has three tenses: past, present, and future; two aspects: perfective and progressive; five moods: interrogative, imperative, conditional, potential, and subjunctive; and nine persons corresponding to the nine pronouns. Grammatical person and negation is expressed by verb prefixes, while tense, aspect, and mood are expressed by suffixes. Negation is denoted with a ne- prefix. Vaktrian verbs tend to end with ''-at'', ''-it'', ''-as'', ''-is'', or ''-aı''. | |
+ | |||
+ | Negation comes before person in the prefix. The order for suffixes is tense and aspect then mood. Word structure: negative + person + verb + tense/aspect + mood. The suffix usually replaces the ''t'', ''s'', or ''ı'' at the end of a verb. Suffixes for verbs with irregular endings often place ''ıa'' after the verb but before the suffix. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Vaktrian is a zero copula language, thus there is no word equivalent to "to be". | ||
Person is generally only denoted with a suffix if a subject is not given in a sentence. | Person is generally only denoted with a suffix if a subject is not given in a sentence. | ||
− | + | === Tense, aspect, and mood === | |
{| class="wikitable floatcenter" border="1" | {| class="wikitable floatcenter" border="1" | ||
|+ | |+ | ||
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|- | |- | ||
− | | rowspan="6" |''Perfective''||''No mood''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | | rowspan="6" |''Perfective''||''No mood''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-r'''|| style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" |'''-m''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Subjunctive''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Subjunctive''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-ra'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-ıa'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-ıma''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Conditional''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Conditional''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-rin'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-n'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-min''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Potential''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Potential''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-rač'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-ıač'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-mač''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Imperative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Imperative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-ruk'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-ıuk'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-muk''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Interrogative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Interrogative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-riš'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-ıš'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-miš''' |
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
− | | rowspan="6" |''Progressive''||''No mood''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | | rowspan="6" |''Progressive''||''No mood''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-c'''|| style="text-align: center;" | || style="text-align: center;" |'''-p''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Subjunctive''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Subjunctive''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-ca'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-sa'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-pa''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Conditional''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Conditional''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-cin'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-sin'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-pin''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Potential''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Potential''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-kač'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-sač'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-pač''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Imperative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Imperative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-cu'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-suk'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-puk''' |
|- | |- | ||
− | |''Interrogative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''- | + | |''Interrogative''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-ciš'''|| style="text-align: center;" | '''-diš'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''-piš''' |
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
− | + | === Person === | |
{|class="wikitable" | {|class="wikitable" | ||
! Person !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural | ! Person !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural | ||
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|} | |} | ||
− | ==== Attributative verbs ==== | + | <!--==== Attributative verbs ==== |
Vaktrian allows a verb to modify a noun as an adjective with the suffix -čes. | Vaktrian allows a verb to modify a noun as an adjective with the suffix -čes. | ||
+ | --> | ||
− | + | == Nouns == | |
− | Vaktrian has no grammatical gender; three numbers: singular, dual, plural; and | + | Vaktrian has no grammatical gender; three numbers: singular, dual, plural; and seven cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, allative, and locative. |
{|class="wikitable" | {|class="wikitable" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
− | | || -is || - | + | | || -is || -aŧ |
|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
− | | -aı || -saı || - | + | | -aı || -saı || -ŧaı |
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
− | | -al || -sal || - | + | | -al || -sal || -ŧal |
|- | |- | ||
! Genetive | ! Genetive | ||
− | | -ila || -sila || - | + | | -ila || -sila || -ŧila |
|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
− | | -uš || -suš || - | + | | -uš || -suš || -ŧuš |
+ | |- | ||
+ | ! Allative | ||
+ | | -ip || -sip || -ŧip | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ''At'' locative | ! ''At'' locative | ||
− | | -ant || -sant || - | + | | -ant || -sant || -ŧant |
|- | |- | ||
! ''On'' locative | ! ''On'' locative | ||
− | | -arm || -sarm || - | + | | -arm || -sarm || -ŧarm |
|- | |- | ||
! ''In'' locative | ! ''In'' locative | ||
− | | -až || -saž || - | + | | -až || -saž || -ŧaž |
|} | |} | ||
− | Genitive case is applied to the possessed noun, and the possessed noun comes before the possessor. When a possessed noun has an additionial case other than the genitive, the genitive suffix is added to the end. | + | Genitive case is applied to the possessed noun, and the possessed noun comes before the possessor. When a possessed noun has an additionial case other than the genitive, the genitive suffix is added to the end. Genetive case is also used to indicate something "of" something else. |
+ | <!-- | ||
Adjectives and adverbs (which are generally identical) occur after the noun or verb they modify and often end with ''-as''. Nouns are often modified to adjectives with the ''-as'' suffix. | Adjectives and adverbs (which are generally identical) occur after the noun or verb they modify and often end with ''-as''. Nouns are often modified to adjectives with the ''-as'' suffix. | ||
− | + | --> | |
Vaktrian has the indefinite article ''haı'', but lacks a definite article. The article agrees with its noun by also adopting the case suffixes. | Vaktrian has the indefinite article ''haı'', but lacks a definite article. The article agrees with its noun by also adopting the case suffixes. | ||
− | + | === Pronouns === | |
− | Vektramic has eight personal pronouns. They are not gendered. All of the noun cases apply to pronouns; however, instrumental case denotes accompaniment rather than usage and the ''at'' locative case denotes near or around. | + | Vektramic has eight personal pronouns. They are not gendered. All of the noun cases apply to pronouns; however, instrumental case denotes accompaniment rather than usage and the ''at'' locative case denotes near or around. Genetive case pronouns act as possessive determiners; e.g. ''kamla avrun'' means "my house" and ''avrun kamla'' means "the house is mine". |
{| class="wikitable floatcenter" border="1" | {| class="wikitable floatcenter" border="1" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
− | |''Plural''|| style="text-align: center;" |''' | + | |''Plural''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧa'''|| style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧaı''' || style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧal''' || style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧla''' || style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧuš''' || style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧant''' || style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧarm''' || style="text-align: center;" |'''smaŧaž''' |
|} | |} | ||
+ | Relative pronouns include ''run'', which is modified with noun cases similar to adjectives. | ||
+ | |||
+ | == Demonstratives == | ||
Vaktrian uses ''ava-'' to denote reflexivity in pronouns (e.g. ''avamaıa'' is ''themselves''). | Vaktrian uses ''ava-'' to denote reflexivity in pronouns (e.g. ''avamaıa'' is ''themselves''). | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Proximal | ! Proximal | ||
− | | | + | | čaı |
− | | | + | | sǐ |
− | | | + | | ŧaı |
|- | |- | ||
! Medial | ! Medial | ||
− | | | + | | časr |
| isan | | isan | ||
− | | | + | | ŧǐn |
|- | |- | ||
! Distal | ! Distal | ||
| ačal | | ačal | ||
| isal | | isal | ||
− | | | + | | iŧan |
|} | |} | ||
+ | |||
+ | == Modifiers == | ||
+ | |||
+ | * ''-em'' denotes someone who does something; e.g. ''miskrnem'' comes from ''miskrn'' (battle) to mean warrior. | ||
+ | * ''-ast'' denotes belonging to something; e.g. ''Aštaırastı'' (Astrian), ''komunast'' (communist). | ||
+ | * ''-astıa'' is the noun form of the above; e.g. ''Aštaırastıa'' (Astrianism), ''komunastıa'' (communism). | ||
+ | * ''-ıa''<!--potentially from romanyan/greek--> and ''-erv'' denote location; e.g. ''plarcerv'' (winery) from ''plarce'' (wine). | ||
+ | * ''-nin'' is the dimunitive; e.g. ''uršaftnin'' (pony) from ''uršaft'' (horse). | ||
+ | |||
+ | == Evolution == | ||
+ | === Proto-Vaktrian to Classical Vaktrian === | ||
+ | * ''-ir'' to ''-il'' | ||
+ | * ''daš-'' to ''đaš-'' | ||
+ | * ''i'' or ''u'' between consonants dropped when fricative or r present (sometimes) | ||
+ | * ''h'' between vowels or at end dropped | ||
+ | * when two ''m'''s separated by vowel, last ''m'' becomes ''n'' | ||
+ | * ''d'' to ''t'' | ||
+ | * ''l'' after plosive dropped | ||
+ | * final ''g'' to ''k'' | ||
+ | * ''hi-'' to ''i'' | ||
+ | * ''ca'' to ''ha'' or ''ka'' | ||
+ | * ''z'' preceded by ''r'' then vowel becomes ''s'' | ||
+ | * ''aıv'' to ''av'' | ||
+ | * ''r'' to ''l'' when between ''u'' and consonant (''urt'' to ''ult'') (sometimes) | ||
+ | * final ''f'' to ''v'' | ||
+ | * ''zh'' to ''z'' | ||
+ | * initial and final ''i'' dropped | ||
+ | * when two vowels separated by''ı'', last vowel dropped | ||
+ | * ''-iz'' to ''-iza'' | ||
+ | * ''b'' to ''p'' | ||
+ | * ''ft-'' to ''f-'' | ||
+ | * ''ru'' to ''ra'' | ||
+ | * two of same vowels to long vowel | ||
+ | * final long vowel to normal vowel | ||
+ | * final ''š'' preceded by consonant to ''s'' | ||
+ | * ''gh'' to ''c'' | ||
+ | |||
+ | === Classical Vaktrian to Modern Vaktrian === | ||
+ | * ''a'' between plosive then another consonants to ''e'' | ||
+ | * ''gh'' to ''c'' | ||
+ | * vowel between two of the same consonant becomes long | ||
+ | * ''gh'' to ''c'' | ||
+ | * initial ''i'' to ''e'' | ||
+ | * ''št'' to ''č'' | ||
+ | * final ''ı'' dropped | ||
+ | * ''sđ'' to ''đ'' | ||
+ | * initial ''ri-'' to ''li-'' | ||
+ | * ''sđ'' to ''đ'' | ||
+ | * ''št'' to ''č'' | ||
+ | * initial ''u'' to ''o'' | ||
+ | * plosive followed ''rf'' to ''rv'' | ||
+ | * ''a'' preceded by fricative to ''e'' | ||
+ | * ''ha-'' to ''a-'' | ||
+ | * ''nm'' to ''mm''; ''mn'' to ''nn'' | ||
== Writing system == | == Writing system == | ||
== Modern era == | == Modern era == | ||
− | |||
− | |||
[[Category:Terraconserva]] | [[Category:Terraconserva]] | ||
[[Category:Terranihil]] | [[Category:Terranihil]] | ||
[[Category:Languages]] | [[Category:Languages]] |
Latest revision as of 03:15, 12 October 2023
Vaktrian | |
---|---|
Vaktrıast | |
Region | Terranihil |
Era | 8th century BCE - present |
Vaktrian
| |
Vaktrian alphabet (8th c. BCE - 6th c. CE), Romanyan script (~6th c. CE - present) | |
Official status | |
Official language in | Terranihil |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | vak |
Vaktrian (Vaktrian:Ⲯⲁⲕⲧⲣⲓⲁⲋⲧ, Vaktrıast) is a language that emerged in the 8th century BCE as Classical Vaktrian. It is the language of the Vaktrian people and official language of Terranihil. It has six living dialects. Its standardized form, a modernization of Classical Vaktrian, is the lingua franca of Terranihil.
Contents
Etymology
The native name for Vaktrian is Vaktrıast (Ⲯⲁⲕⲧⲣⲓⲁⲋ in Classical Vaktrian). Vaktrıa from Proto-Vaktrian means "road" or "way". The -ast suffix in Vaktrian changes a noun into an adjective, thus Vaktrıast is best translated as "[language] of the road".
History
Proto-Vaktrian
The Proto-Vaktrians were the hypothetical prehistoric predecessors of the ancient Vaktrian people and spoke the reconstructed language Proto-Vaktrian. They lived in the region of Vaktria in the 2nd millenium BCE. Analysis of the Vaktrian language shows that it is an isolated language family that does not derive from any of the neighboring language families. The speakers of Proto-Vaktrian likely originated from the Fištrunstitas bronze age culture native to the Maplas river.
Classical Vaktrian (800 BCE - 200 CE)
Classical Vaktrian is form of the language throughout most of ancient Vaktrian history. It includes the language during the Kingdom of Vaktria and during Romanyan occupation. Classical Vaktrian was first written down using the Vaktrian alphabet, derived from the Greek script, around 400 BCE. What appear to be logographic inscriptions of Vaktrian also date back to 800 BCE. The language spread across the western coast and became the language of Astrianism.
Northern and Southern Vaktrian (200 - 1200)
Around the 3rd century CE, the Vaktrian language began to diverge into two branches: nothern Vaktrian and southern Vaktrian. This aligned with cultural, religious, and political differences. The southern region of Vaktria had become heavily influenced by Romanyan, more so than the north. It remained under Romanyan rule until the 6th century and was Christianized. When it split from Romanya, the south formed itself into the Ragasan Kingdom. Meanwhile, northern Vaktria seceded from Romanya earlier in 325. Northern Vaktrians were less infuenced by Romanyan culture and language and were anti-Christian. The Septarban Kingdom actively resisted Romanyanization and Christianization by banning Christianity, expelling Christian Vaktrians, and prohibiting use of the Iberic script. These differences led to the development of the two branches of Vaktrian.
Development of dialects
1200 AD - present
Standardization
19th century
One of the most significant phonological changes from Classical to Standard is the loss of voiced plosives. Voiced plosives had dissappeared from Northern Vaktrian and most of the following dialects. Another major change is the addition of the two affricates in Standard Vaktrian.
The major morphological changes include the grammatical person for verbs becoming prefixes rather than standing alone and the locative noun cases becoming suffixes rather than standing alone.
Classical, Standard, and spoken Vaktrian
Dialects
Geographic distribution
Phonology
Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
dental | alveolar | post-alveolar | ||||||
Plosive | /p/ p | /t/ t | /k/ k | |||||
Fricative | voiceless | /f/ f | /θ/ ŧ | /s/ s | /ʃ/ š | /x/ c | /h/ h | |
voiced | /v/ v | /ð/ đ | /z/ z | |||||
Affricate | /ts/ ž | /tʃ/ č | ||||||
Nasal | /m/ m | /n/ n | ||||||
Liquid | /r/ r, /l/ l | |||||||
Semivowel | /j/ ı |
Short | Long | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
High | /i/ i | /u/ u | /iː/ ǐ | /uː/ ǔ |
Mid | /ɘ/ e | /oː/ o | ||
Low | /a/ a | /aː/ ǎ |
Diphthong: au, eu
Grammar
Vaktrian is an agglutanative language which utilizes both prefixes and suffixes to denote verb person, tense, mood, and aspect and noun case.
The word order is subject-verb-object, though sentences do not strictly follow this order since cases are denoted seperate from order.
Vaktrian uses postprepositions.
Generally the second syllable of a word is stressed, unless otherwise indicated by a long vowel.
Verbs
Vaktrian has three tenses: past, present, and future; two aspects: perfective and progressive; five moods: interrogative, imperative, conditional, potential, and subjunctive; and nine persons corresponding to the nine pronouns. Grammatical person and negation is expressed by verb prefixes, while tense, aspect, and mood are expressed by suffixes. Negation is denoted with a ne- prefix. Vaktrian verbs tend to end with -at, -it, -as, -is, or -aı.
Negation comes before person in the prefix. The order for suffixes is tense and aspect then mood. Word structure: negative + person + verb + tense/aspect + mood. The suffix usually replaces the t, s, or ı at the end of a verb. Suffixes for verbs with irregular endings often place ıa after the verb but before the suffix.
Vaktrian is a zero copula language, thus there is no word equivalent to "to be".
Person is generally only denoted with a suffix if a subject is not given in a sentence.
Tense, aspect, and mood
Aspect | Mood | Case | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Past | Present | Future | ||
Perfective | No mood | -r | -m | |
Subjunctive | -ra | -ıa | -ıma | |
Conditional | -rin | -n | -min | |
Potential | -rač | -ıač | -mač | |
Imperative | -ruk | -ıuk | -muk | |
Interrogative | -riš | -ıš | -miš | |
Progressive | No mood | -c | -p | |
Subjunctive | -ca | -sa | -pa | |
Conditional | -cin | -sin | -pin | |
Potential | -kač | -sač | -pač | |
Imperative | -cu | -suk | -puk | |
Interrogative | -ciš | -diš | -piš |
Person
Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
First | ka- | ta- | ma- |
Second | haı- | ti- | mri- |
Third | saı- | stu- | smu- |
Nouns
Vaktrian has no grammatical gender; three numbers: singular, dual, plural; and seven cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, allative, and locative.
Case name | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -is | -aŧ | |
Accusative | -aı | -saı | -ŧaı |
Dative | -al | -sal | -ŧal |
Genetive | -ila | -sila | -ŧila |
Instrumental | -uš | -suš | -ŧuš |
Allative | -ip | -sip | -ŧip |
At locative | -ant | -sant | -ŧant |
On locative | -arm | -sarm | -ŧarm |
In locative | -až | -saž | -ŧaž |
Genitive case is applied to the possessed noun, and the possessed noun comes before the possessor. When a possessed noun has an additionial case other than the genitive, the genitive suffix is added to the end. Genetive case is also used to indicate something "of" something else.
Vaktrian has the indefinite article haı, but lacks a definite article. The article agrees with its noun by also adopting the case suffixes.
Pronouns
Vektramic has eight personal pronouns. They are not gendered. All of the noun cases apply to pronouns; however, instrumental case denotes accompaniment rather than usage and the at locative case denotes near or around. Genetive case pronouns act as possessive determiners; e.g. kamla avrun means "my house" and avrun kamla means "the house is mine".
Person | Number | Case | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | Accusative | Dative | Genetive | Instrumental | At locative | On locative | In locative | ||
First | Singular | kama | kamaı | kamal | kamla | kamuš | kamant | kamar | kamaž |
Plural | maıa | amaı | amal | maıla | amuš | maıant | maıarm | maıaž | |
Second | Singular | hama | hamaı | hamal | hamla | hamuš | hamant | hamar | hamaž |
Dual | tila | tilaı | til | tilal | tiluš | tilant | tilarm | tilaž | |
Plural | mraıa | maraı | maral | mraıla | maruš | mraıant | mraıarm | mraıaž | |
Third | Singular | aša | ašaı | ašal | ašla | uš | ašant | ašarm | ašaž |
Dual | stuıam | stumaı | stumal | stumla | stumuš | stumant | stumarm | stumaž | |
Plural | smaŧa | smaŧaı | smaŧal | smaŧla | smaŧuš | smaŧant | smaŧarm | smaŧaž |
Relative pronouns include run, which is modified with noun cases similar to adjectives.
Demonstratives
Vaktrian uses ava- to denote reflexivity in pronouns (e.g. avamaıa is themselves).
Vaktrian has three classes of demonstratives (proximal, medial, and distal) which also denote number (singular, dual, or plural).
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Proximal | čaı | sǐ | ŧaı |
Medial | časr | isan | ŧǐn |
Distal | ačal | isal | iŧan |
Modifiers
- -em denotes someone who does something; e.g. miskrnem comes from miskrn (battle) to mean warrior.
- -ast denotes belonging to something; e.g. Aštaırastı (Astrian), komunast (communist).
- -astıa is the noun form of the above; e.g. Aštaırastıa (Astrianism), komunastıa (communism).
- -ıa and -erv denote location; e.g. plarcerv (winery) from plarce (wine).
- -nin is the dimunitive; e.g. uršaftnin (pony) from uršaft (horse).
Evolution
Proto-Vaktrian to Classical Vaktrian
- -ir to -il
- daš- to đaš-
- i or u between consonants dropped when fricative or r present (sometimes)
- h between vowels or at end dropped
- when two m's separated by vowel, last m becomes n
- d to t
- l after plosive dropped
- final g to k
- hi- to i
- ca to ha or ka
- z preceded by r then vowel becomes s
- aıv to av
- r to l when between u and consonant (urt to ult) (sometimes)
- final f to v
- zh to z
- initial and final i dropped
- when two vowels separated byı, last vowel dropped
- -iz to -iza
- b to p
- ft- to f-
- ru to ra
- two of same vowels to long vowel
- final long vowel to normal vowel
- final š preceded by consonant to s
- gh to c
Classical Vaktrian to Modern Vaktrian
- a between plosive then another consonants to e
- gh to c
- vowel between two of the same consonant becomes long
- gh to c
- initial i to e
- št to č
- final ı dropped
- sđ to đ
- initial ri- to li-
- sđ to đ
- št to č
- initial u to o
- plosive followed rf to rv
- a preceded by fricative to e
- ha- to a-
- nm to mm; mn to nn